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Reason of cargo damage and handling claims - General cargo ship operational matters

Temperature damage

Some commodities are susceptible to temperature fluctuations (which may cause condensation, or accelerated deterioration­see Part 2, Techniques and Systems, Refrigerated Cargoes) or extremes of temperature which may shorten the "shelf life" of the commodity, or even alter its chemical composition. Consequently, a controlled temperature may be a requirement for shipment. High temperature may have a varying effect on different cargoes. For example:
  1. Chocolates, fats, coatings, etc.­softening causing temporary or permanent change in their appearance;
  2. Perishables­partial or full decomposition;
  3. Drugs­a chemical change rendering the commodity valueless;
  4. Dangerous goods­increase the temperature of the commodity up to its own flash point to the extent it becomes an explosive risk;
  5. Liquids and gases­cause expansion so that packaging materials may be strained to bursting point;
  6. Linoleum­cause distortion and cracking;
  7. Certain bulk cargoes­aggravate any self-heating tendencies.
Extremely low temperatures may also affect some commodities. For example:
  1. Perishables­spoiling of fresh fruit, cheese, vegetables, etc. by freezing;
  2. Bottled and canned liquids and foodstuffs­bursting of the containers by freezing;
  3. Drugs­change in the chemical state making them useless and possibly dangerous;
  4. Certain textiles and cushioning materials­hardening and cracking;
  5. Emulsions­separation.
The following commodities (the list is by no means exhaustive) may be damaged by high temperature:

Beeswax, biscuits (chocolate coated, cream filled), butter (canned), candles, cellophane and film, celluloid goods, certain chemicals, chocolate and confectionery, cocoa butter, cream of tartar, cube gambier, drugs, canned foodstuffs, furniture, gelatine, grass seeds, gum (certain types), hides (wet salted), hops, jams, kernels, lard, linoleum, nails, certain meals, middlings, peas, pulps, photographic material, photographic film (unexposed), rubber merchandise, certain seeds, shellac, soap, tallow, tobacco, vinyl film, waxes.

Commodities which may be damaged by heating (see above) should be stowed away from local sources of heat, i.e. away from engine and boiler room bulkheads and casings. Additionally, they should be apart from wet goods to avoid increasing the evaporation of the liquid contents of the latter. As an example, high quality soya bean meal in bulk for processing and domestic consumption is prone to heating damage.

Large claims have arisen where the product has been "cooked" on the tanktop due to heating of fuel oil in the tanks beneath. Susceptible cargo in containers should be stowed on board and ashore in a position protected from direct sunlight. The latter requirement for containers should also apply to inland transport, e.g. lorry parks, etc.

Some of the commodities which may suffer if exposed to extremes of cold include:

Beers, wines, certain chemicals, chocolate, cork, drugs, canned fruit, fresh fruit, jams, latex, motor cars (if radiators, etc., are not drained), paints (emulsions), rubber merchandise, canned vegetables, fresh vegetables.

Commodities liable to spontaneous heating usually due to excessive moisture content include:
  1. Coal, with accompanying escape of methane, thus increasing the risk of explosion and a loss of calorific value;
  2. Rice, oats, maize, oil seeds and other grains, especially if shipped in an unripe condition, give off a great deal of moisture, causing sweat damage to the grain as well as to other goods in the vicinity. This may cause the seeds to germinate and deteriorate together with the possibility of loss of weight;
  3. Fine seeds heat and germinate if stowed in a badly ventilated space or where moisture is present;
  4. Jute and some fibres give off a great deal of moisture, resulting in sweat damage, rotting and loss of weight;
  5. Seed Cake;
  6. Hay, wool, pepper and cocoa if wet or damp are very liable to spontaneous combustion, sweat damage and deterioration;
  7. Gambier, jelatong and copra give off a great deal of heat and moisture which may adversely affect other commodities in the vicinity;
  8. Nuts and beans are particularly liable to heat, sweat and deterioration.
Damp or wet packages of all the above types of cargo should be carefully examined and rejected if there is any doubt as to the condition of the contents.

Tallow, vegetable oils, molasses, etc., requiring liquefying by heat to facilitate discharge by pumping must be heated gradually to pumping viscosity to avoid burning. Care must also be taken to ensure that cargo liable to melt or to damage by heat is not stowed near deep tank bulkheads. Ventilation may be required to reduce the effects of heat build-up .

Chafe

Chafe is caused by the slight movement of packages against each other, sharp projections or rough surfaces as the ship moves in a seaway. Chafing occurs not only during heavy weather when a vessel is pitching and rolling, but under fine weather conditions when the pulsating movement and vibration of the ship is taken up by packages which may not be securely and firmly stowed on a solid floor. Chafe can similarly be caused to containerised goods by the vibration and movement of a vehicle on road or rail.

Baled goods, e.g. textiles, skins, etc., are particularly susceptible to chafe damage. Goods shipped without the protection of packaging may be directly affected by chafe; e.g. reels of cable may suffer damage to the protective insulation coating leading to very high claims. Loosely stowed cartons may rub against each other during transport and remove a thin layer of the carton surface. This may remove consignees marks, advertisements, etc., leading to a reduction in value and a consequent claim.

Particular care must be given to the stowage of metal and plastic drums. The stow must be even and securely lashed and/or tommed to prevent movement. Drum rims or lids may work against the sides of adjacent drums and spring lids or cause punctures resulting in a spillage with, again, a consequent claim.

Cargo contamination

There are numerous ways in which a cargo can be contaminated by another commodity; by ineffectual cleaning after a previous cargo; by improper storage prior to shipment and consequent exposure to a contaminant; by poor separation from another commodity in the same cargo space , to highlight but a few.

For the ship's officer, contamination prior to shipment may be difficult to spot although it may be obvious if, for example, cartons are seen to be oil-stained or a bulk grain cargo is seen to contain stones or pieces of vegetation/wood. The ship can, however, avoid contamination occurring on board by good cleaning prior to loading a new cargo and ensuring that different commodities are properly separated.

Cargo mixing

Cargo mixing is mostly likely to occur with bulk grain or seed cargoes. Separation of different grades or types of grain in bulk may be best achieved by trimming the first parcel and covering with plastic sheets. The sheets should be anchored by pieces of timber at the shipside with ullages from the top of or underside of the hatch coaming taken and noted at the load port.

The application of the ullage measurement by ship's staff or stevedores at discharge port will avoid the separation being broken through by grab or the plastic being sucked into the vacuvator. This will likely necessitate the last half metre or so being hand-shovelled until the separation is clear.

Large claims may also arise from the mixing of commodities being carried in packaged form when packing splits or leaks. Examples of such mixing are china clay and silver sand; seeds with jaggery; oil with ore; charcoal with sugar; broken and unbroken coke; pulp with fibres; plastic granules with rice, etc.

To avoid damage and loss of this kind, careful consideration should be given to:
  1. Over stowing­goods should be selected for stowing on or over others with a view to eliminating or minimising the risk of such mixtures, avoiding such stowage as bagged seeds over jaggery, powdery goods over sugar or seeds, oils over ores, plastic granules over bagged rice, etc.;
  2. Separations­when different lots of bulk grain, etc., or bagged goods are carried, the contents of which are liable to mix as a result of torn packages or of sifting, they should be separated in such a manner as to prevent mixing and to facilitate the collection of "sweepings" from the top cargo before disturbing the stow beneath;
  3. Separations within holds should be at charterer's risk and expense and stipulated within the charter party.
The mixing of different types of cargo, e.g. unitised and break bulk cargo, may result in mechanical damage to the latter when fork lift trucks or other mechanical handling equipment is operated in the hold to load and discharge the units .

The mixture of general cargo to reduce broken stowage and the mixture of consignments with different bills of lading may also lead to claims for lost or over-carried cargo. Refrigerated cargoes frequently require separation. Nets or coloured tapes are usual for carcass and quarter beef; colour wash or crayons for cartons and boxes. Correct separation must be carried out .

Dust and stain

When loading dusty commodities other cargo in the vicinity should be well covered. However, if possible, the safest way is to load the dusty cargo first and sweep down making adjacent areas suitable for the subsequent cargo. The same precautions should be observed during discharge.

Dusty goods, or those from which sifted contents may occur (e.g. plumbago), should not be stowed over goods which are susceptible to damage by dust or on commodities whose packaging would be stained by the dust, without first laying an efficient separation between them .

Packages on the bottom tier of a stow in the lower hold may come into direct contact with oil (where tank top sheathing is not laid) if there is leakage from the double bottoms and tank top sheathing itself may become oil stained by capillary action. Such leakage will not only cause staining, but also a source of taint, and possibly inflammable fumes with particular types of oil.

Rust damage

Rust is corrosion of steel caused by moisture, rain, water (fresh or salt) or sweat, and the presence of oxygen, producing red discolouration and, in some circumstances, heavy pitting of the steel surface.

Moisture may be introduced by leakage, other cargo, packaging, green timber (dunnage), rain (on the cargo when ashore prior to loading or when the hatches are open), or by ventilation.

Processed steel may suffer irreparable damage if rust is permitted to gain a hold while canned goods may lose much of their value to the consignee. Goods liable to damage by rust should not be stowed in the same compartment or container with cargo, packaging or dunnage which is liable to give off moisture. Ventilation may be a requirement but, as mentioned above, it could on occasion aggravate the situation .

Wet damage

Condensation, sometimes known as sweat, is tiny beads of moisture settling on a relatively cool surface when the air surrounding that surface can no longer support all the water vapour that it carries. Moisture thus formed can cause rust; discolouration; mould; caking and clogging; dislodging of labels; collapse of packages and parts of the stow depending on the commodity, its packaging and the time factor; and other variable conditions.

There are two principle types of condensation affecting cargoes, which are cargo sweat and ship (or container) sweat. Each is caused by a separate set of circumstances, and each affects the cargo in a different way. For condensation to appear at all, there must be a source of moisture and there must be a temperature gradient.

The source of moisture may be:
  1. the cargo itself (or other cargo in the same compartment);
  2. packaging of the cargo;
  3. dunnage supporting or restraining the cargo;
  4. the pallet or skid on which the cargo is shipped;
  5. timber sheathing, spar ceilings, etc. of the ship (or container walls and floor);
  6. air trapped at the time of loading (or stuffing);
  7. air introduced in the course of ventilation, opening hatches (or container doors).
The temperature gradient may be caused by any fairly sudden change in the ambient temperature, sea water temperature or cargo temperature (e.g. self-heating meals).

Discharge of fire damaged goods

Fire damaged goods should be discharged under survey, and to facilitate the drawing up of reports and average statements, they should be divided into separate lots: Pilferage and broached cargo

To protect the ship from blame and responsibility for pilferage occurring on shore the greatest vigilance by the ship's officers is necessary. Incoming cargo should be carefully scrutinised­which is best done on the dock or wharf rather than on board­and every unsound or suspect package rejected until its contents have been ascertained. When discharging, clean receipts for all packages delivered should be demanded except, of course, for those actually found to be short of contents.

To guard against pilferage and broaching on board ship, ship's officers should maintain a close watch on cargo liable to be broached. When several holds containing broachable cargo are being worked, responsible ship's personnel or shore watchmen should be employed. Frequent visits by the officer on deck to the holds and areas where broachable cargo is being worked is also a good deterrent.

Broachable cargo should be confined to as few holds as possible stowed near the hatch square where it can be more easily seen from on deck while the hatches are being worked. If broachable cargo has to be worked at night, it is essential that good lighting is provided in the holds, on deck, and over side (particularly if working to/from lighters).

Broachable goods should be overstowed with other suitable cargo as soon as possible and the hold watchman should not be withdrawn until access to the broachable goods is completely blocked off. Hold watchman should be relieved for meals so as not to leave the hold unwatched at any time. Circumstances permitting, all labour should be compelled to leave cargo compartments during meal hours, thus also providing an additional precaution against fire.

Ventilators, etc., giving access to compartments containing broachable goods should be fitted with suitably placed iron bars and steel locking bars should be fitted to all hatches giving access (however indirect) to broachable goods when the hold is not being worked.

To summarise, the ship can best protect its interests by:



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